30.    As project work in schools become more refined, marks for school based projects should be included as part of the junior college and polytechnic entry requirements. Hence, instead of total dependence on ëOí level grades, a portfolio of requirements can be introduced. Weightage should be given to other criteria such as continuous assessment (including project work), ECA achievements and special awards for excellence in various fields. Interviews can be conducted to further ascertain students' ability.

31.    Secondary schools and junior colleges/polytechnics should develop a ìpartnershipî to monitor studentsí progress. For instance, by considering inputs from the junior colleges/polytechnics on studentsí performance, secondary schools can address areas of concern and improve their system. Secondary education should not be treated as a discrete entity and the transition between secondary and junior college/polytechnic should be accomplished more smoothly. Better interfacing should be developed between the two levels.

Chapter Five

JUNIOR COLLEGE EDUCATION

5.1 OBJECTIVES

1.    Most junior colleges are keenly aware that their main role is to prepare students academically so that they qualify for university admission. Other objectives of importance include developing the talents, skills and leadership qualities of a student; and motivating the individual to responsible membership in the community. The emphasis given to each of these different roles varies from college to college, but in general, the variation in objectives is not significantly different, as junior colleges are guided by Ministry policies and public expectations.

2.    The vision of junior college education as articulated by the then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew in 1970 during the opening ceremony of National Junior College, Singapore's first junior college, was to develop "a keen intellect", "a rounded development" and "a robust constitution". The intention was also to stretch students' minds "in anticipation of a university education" and to produce leaders of tomorrow for both the public and private sectors.

5.2 AREAS OF CONCERN

Over-emphasis on examination grades

3.    While the aims of junior college education are broad enough to encompass both academic (e.g. intellectual development) and non-academic aspects (e.g. leadership, character development, passion for learning, communication skills), the reality is that they tend to focus much more strongly on academic aspects. Academic aspects of education also tend to be interpreted rather narrowly to mean quantifiable measures such as examination grades.

4.    At present, principals, teachers and students tend to focus primarily on examination grades because these form the tried and tested route which leads to immediate rewards. They appear to be the only yardstick by which individual students and junior colleges are measured by. Entry into university for the individual student is dictated solely by examination grades while colleges are ranked primarily according to examination results. Society as a whole appears to valorize examination grades as the most important mark of a student's or college's achievements. Parents, for example, judge a college's merit mainly by the number of distinctions it produces at the 'A' level examinations. These pressures mean that junior colleges tend to "produce" what parents expect and what institutions such as the Ministry of Education, the Public Service Commission, and the universities are perceived to endorse: better and better 'A' level grades.

The lack of a well-rounded education, and school ranking

5.    While striving towards excellence in examination results is in itself an important individual and institutional goal, the danger is that the excessive pressures it creates may compromise other aspects of a well-rounded education. The other aspects of individual development which are crucial for the 21^st century may then be given lower priority. The role of ECAs cannot be overstated for the development of all round education.

6.    The strong emphasis placed on achieving better and better examination results is partly due to the junior college ranking exercise. In other words, the pre-occupation with junior college ranking deflects attention from the wider aims of education and the vision and mission of each junior college.

Over-specialization
7.    Another major concern is that junior college education is highly streamed with very little permeability between streams. Junior college education is organized around three streams: Arts, Science and Commerce. This structure, while serving past cohorts well, is too rigid for a 21^st century scenario, since it provides few opportunities for students to stretch themselves by crossing disciplinary boundaries (e.g. between science and arts).
8.    In the past, the main aspiration for most students was to obtain a first degree, which justified the early specialization at 'A' levels. However, competing in the first league in contemporary times means that students should not be too narrowly educated at an early stage. There will be opportunities for several kinds of specialization at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

9.    Generally, the curriculum is not broad-based enough, leading to a number of problems at the university level such as students having insufficient grounding when they change streams (e.g. a student in the Commerce stream entering the Arts or the Science faculty at the University). A broader based junior college education will not only provide a better test of the quality and flexibility of students aspiring to enter university but also better equip students who enter the workforce after junior college with a broader range of skills and educational experience. The curriculum should move students away from linear thinking, and narrow and early specialization, to clear and imaginative thinking and a broad-based foundation.

5.3 SHORT TERM RECOMMENDATIONS

Curriculum and teaching/learning strategies

10.    In terms of teaching and learning strategies, it is recommended that junior colleges explore the extent to which teaching strategies promote independent learning. Of concern is the over-emphasis on copious notes prepared by teachers and the lack of incentives to hone information search and synthesis skills. A "spoon-feeding" culture seems to have taken root in the junior college system. Students should be encouraged to seek out knowledge and to sift through the masses of information on their own.

11.    Teachers should not be driven by a dedicated focus on achieving better and better examination results for their students. There should be a change to methods of teaching which emphasize creative problem-solving, systems thinking, team-working, networking, life-long learning, and technology adoption.

12.    It should be the aim of every junior college to give its students the experience of self-directed research. This can take the form of individualized research proposals leading to hands-on project work or open-ended assignments, which should assess students on critical thinking and creative applications of knowledge. Oral presentations which develop communication skills should form some component of the project work or research report. The change of focus to self-directed learning could be given due importance by ensuring that university admission criteria include it as a component (see later section on university admission requirements). It is envisaged that the Extended Essay (patterned on the one expected in the International Baccalaureate diploma programme) which could be introduced as part of the General Paper requirement be used for such self-directed research across subjects.

13.    A pressing matter is that of the over-crowded curriculum which is over-taught by teachers. The chief recommendation is a significant content reduction in the curriculum of junior college students. This is necessary to release the time that is needed for a good self-directed project within individual subjects to be completed. Teachers should be trained immediately, on a pilot basis, to design, plan and execute such a reduced curriculum. Additional features which lead to independent, interesting, and lifelong learning should be incorporated. Content reduction could be up to 30 per cent for the 'A' level subjects. For further discussion, see sections 6.2 and 6.3.

14.    For teachers to manage creatively the vast opportunities given to them, smaller student-teacher ratios might have to be introduced.

Assessment

15.    The mode of assessment is the mechanism which drives the education system and hence is the key to change. The 'A' level examinations must be reformatted to test thinking and application skills. Less predictable questions should be included in every examination paper. At the very least, each paper should include a compulsory open-ended question which is challenging and which tests true thinking. To stimulate independent learning and creative thinking, open book examinations should also be introduced where appropriate. The introduction of an Extended Essay as part of the General Paper as mentioned above could form the basis for interviews (e.g. in being considered for admission to university).

16.    It is clear that the methods of teaching and assessment have to emphasize creative problem solving, critical pursuits in thinking, innovative handling of information technology, team-working and networking, and life-long learning. The reorientation might lead to a lesser dependence on pen-and-paper type examinations and to a greater dependence on project work assessment and/or other process skills assessments.

Changing the admissions requirements at the universities

17.    Entry requirements for university admission which drive the current emphasis on examination performance should be reconsidered. University admission could be used to encourage a broadening of the curriculum base by giving sufficient weight to other elements apart from the grades achieved for three 'A' level subjects. These could include grades for 'AO' level subjects outside the students' designated stream, junior college-based preliminary examination and continuous assessment, and ECA achievements. This suggested change should take, at the maximum, two years to implement, as employers have consistently given feedback to universities that graduates lack originality, team-work traits, and imagination.

18.    The universities should take cognizance of students with extra attributes. Admissions committees at the university level could reserve some places for students who show outstanding networking, entrepreneurship, and creative abilities.

19.    Currently, there are possibilities for National Science Talent Search or Olympiad medal winners to win automatic entry into the universities. It is recommended that students who score top grades in the Science Research Programme and the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Programme be included for such automatic entry. With the passage of time, the percentage of such direct entry admissions should be increased substantially.

20.    As with university entry requirements, junior college entry requirements may also have to be rethought. While the current point system based on 'O' level grades provides an unambiguous, measurable score, it does not take into account equally important non-measurable qualities of a less clear cut nature (such as emotional competence, initiative, creativity). One solution is to widen junior college admission criteria to include a basket of variables including academic and non-academic aspects. Another is to give junior college principals more autonomy when it comes to admission. However, this may also create problems for popular junior colleges as parents may then pressurize principals to use their discretionary powers to admit their children into the colleges.

Junior college ranking

21.    As there are only 14 junior colleges in Singapore, ranking as a means of informing the public of each college's standing in order to help parents and students choose a college is not necessary, although it has become a practical reality today. Any form of publicized ranking - whether in its current form or in terms of "banding", or based on a wider base of variables than currently used - would detract from the mission of junior colleges of producing well rounded students "with a robust constitution and a keen intellect". Ranking adds pressure on colleges to improve their position on the league table often at the expense of truly educating and cultivating potentially good calibre university students. Since Singapore is small in size and population, and the younger generations of parents are better educated and well informed, it may not be necessary to publicly rank junior colleges. Parents may then begin to look at the junior colleges and what these can offer their children in the way of an enriching and stimulating environment. The ideal step here would be the empowerment of principals who understand the true aims of education.

22.    A key recommendation is that, if the present junior college ranking has to be kept for the time being, it might be expedient and necessary to modify the ranking procedure for the top five junior colleges. This may involve a two-step process, where the top five colleges, ranked initially using the Mean Subject Grade as the only criterion, would be re-ranked. This re-ranking should take into consideration their success at producing individuals with a robust constitution, a keen intellect, and the extra strength of character which makes for leadership. As the non-academic performance cannot be quantified, it is recommended that the assessment be carried out by an external assessment team consisting of senior academic staff of the universities and successful leaders from the public and private sectors. In addition, these top five junior colleges should be ranked over a three-year period (with a moving average).

5.4 LONGER TERM RECOMMENDATIONS

Broadening the curriculum base

23.    It is recommended that the curriculum base be broadened. Students should be stretched and encouraged to pursue a wider range of subjects at 'AO' level as opposed to the increasing tendency of specialization in the form of 'S' level papers for subjects already pursued at 'A' level. For example, even the best students should be restricted to only three (as opposed to four) 'A' level subjects (say, in the sciences) and be encouraged to take as many other subjects at 'AO' level (languages and Arts subjects). Incentives to encourage this flexibility have to be built into the structure of university admission requirements.

Rethinking the 'S' level papers

24.    While the 'S' level papers are not a requirement for local university admission, more and more students are taking these papers as they are included in the basket of criteria used by the Public Service Commission in awarding prestigious scholarships to top students. If possible, grades in 'S' level papers should not be used. To steer students towards a broader and more rounded education, the criteria used in awarding Public Service Commission scholarships may be adjusted to include other non-traditional assessments: (i) doing well in a junior college programme such as the Science Research Programme (SRP), the Creative Arts Programme (CAP), the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Programme (HSSRP); (ii) doing well across the curriculum (e.g. Science students pursuing Humanities subjects or vice-versa); and (iii) doing well in ECA or community service.

25.    In addition to broadening the curriculum base, junior colleges should be encouraged to pay equal attention to ECAs as it will continue the thrust of individual development, inter-personal skill enhancement, and development of other components of emotional intelligence, e.g. zeal and self-motivation, social deftness, character and self-discipline, altruism and compassion. The balanced emphasis on intellectual and emotional competencies is especially important for future leaders of the nation who will most likely emerge from among the junior college students.

Teachers and the curriculum

26.    In order for teachers to motivate, plan, shape and manage the curriculum effectively, teachers should be given the opportunities for professional self-development. Teachers should lead by example in terms of knowledge acquisition. They should be given time to update their knowledge content, and carry out research relevant to their teaching subjects. Some form of sabbatical leave can be introduced to give teachers the opportunity to refresh their skills.

27.    As project work becomes a staple feature of junior college education, teachers should be given the necessary training to equip them with the skills to use projects as an effective teaching/learning and assessment strategy. Teachers must be encouraged to exercise greater autonomy and innovation in implementing the curriculum.

28.    Teachers also play a key role in the emotional development of students. They should thus be trained to be facilitators to maximize the healthy nurturing of emotional intelligence of junior college students.

The International Baccalaureate Diploma

29.    The IB diploma is accepted for university entry in prestigious universities world-wide. It is recommended that a study be carried out to weigh the pros and cons of introducing the IB curriculum to selected junior colleges. If the pros outweigh the cons, these junior colleges should be allowed the choice of offering both 'A' level type education and the IB Diploma programme.

Chapter Six

RE-THINKING THE SYLLABUS:

FOUR CASE STUDIES

6.1 OVERVIEW

1.    In tandem with the broader review of the curriculum, an evaluation of the syllabus content of specific subjects has been carried out with the general view to equip students with the necessary skills to be innovative, resourceful and creative so as to meet the challenges of the 21^st century. More specifically, the intention is to suggest ways and means to reduce knowledge content in order to free up some time and space for introducing project-based/self-directed learning as it is felt that the latter is essential to help students develop their critical and creative faculties. In some cases, changes in the teaching and learning strategies may also be necessary.

2.    The general principles which undergird this exercise are derived from the findings of the broader curriculum review. In summary form, these are

	balance in breadth and depth of understanding;
	the sustenance of life-long learning;
	enjoyment and motivation in learning;
	an innovative mindset and teamwork spirit;
	development of creative and critical thinking; and
	cultivation of effective communicative skills.

3.    The section explores the issue of possible syllabus revamp and/or content reduction in four selected subjects, two at the 'A' level and the other two at the 'O' level ('A' level Geography 9057, 'A' level Physics 9244, 'O' level Biology 5090, 'O' level English Literature 2010), and attempts to provide possible models for syllabus revamp/content reduction which may be followed up and pursued in a more comprehensive way by experienced curriculum developers. Thus, the following exercise is not intended as a thorough review of the specificities of the syllabus (this being the province of curriculum and subject specialists). The aim here is to suggest possible starting points to rethink the syllabus, issues which are to be subject to closer scrutiny by the relevant experts.

6.2 'A' LEVEL SUBJECT (1): GEOGRAPHY (9057)

Rationale behind syllabus

4.    The examination syllabus of Subject 9057, Geography (GCE Advanced Level) lists a total of 11 aims including

those directed primarily at expanding students' knowledge base (e.g. rationale (a) "to introduce students to the main components of physical and human geography"; rationale (b) to introduce students to the principal processes operative in physical and human geography");

those intended to raise students' awareness of relevant real-world issues and to develop both local sensitivity to and a global view of real-world problems (e.g. rationale (e) "to increase the student's awareness of the relevance of their studies in human geography to current social, economic and ecological problems"; rationale (f) "to increase the student's awareness in the study of physical and human geography of current people-environment issues"); and

those directed at developing process skills (e.g. rationale (i) "to demonstrate to students selected techniques appropriate to the greater understanding and interpretation of the facts and relationships in physical and human geography").

5.    While the aims in the first two categories are well elaborated (and notwithstanding the fact that process skills are implicit requirements in most of the listed aims), the types of process skills which the subject attempts to develop should be more clearly articulated. The number of aims relating to knowledge acquisition could be trimmed or collapsed to provide space for introducing those relating to developing process skills which would help students apply geographical principles to real-world contexts.

Scheme of assessment

6.    The syllabus is examined by two papers (1) Physical Geography and (2) Human Geography. Each paper requires the student to answer four out of a total of fourteen questions in two sections:

Section A tests students' ability to represent and interpret geographical data and their inquiry skills based on the core syllabus. Students attempt one out of a choice of two questions.

Section B comprises twelve questions requiring essay-length answers: eight questions on the core syllabus and four on the optional topics. Students attempt any three questions in this section.

7.    Section A is an innovative section which clearly tests students process skills as opposed to memory work. This section should be expanded to include data-response and fieldwork-based questions. To increase emphasis on process skills, weightage accorded to Section A can be expanded from a quarter to half the paper. For example, it could comprise four questions based on the core syllabus out of which students are required to answer two.

8.    Correspondingly, Section B can be reduced in weightage from three-quarters to half the paper. It can, for example, comprise eight questions (four from the core syllabus and four from the optional) out of which students are required to attempt two.

Syllabus content

9.    Possible starting points for syllabus revamp and content reduction in Geography 9057 are discussed below.

Reducing factual content

(proposed corresponding reduction in curriculum time: 10 per cent)

Sub-topics within the Core Syllabus which are mainly fact-subsuming can be trimmed. These require primarily memory work and do not effectively engage students in thinking through geographical concepts or applying process skills. An example of such a sub-topic would be "The density and distribution of population and the factors affecting density and distribution of population" to be illustrated using case-studies of "one advanced and one developing country" (Sub-topic 1(a)(i) under "Population Geography"). While some understanding of population density and distribution is necessary background, this is already achieved as part of the GCE 'O' level Geography Syllabus and need not overburden the syllabus again at the 'A' Level.

Reducing the number of examples/case-studies required

(Proposed corresponding reduction in curriculum time: 10 per cent)

The amount of material students are expected to cover can be further reduced by judicious pruning of the number of examples and case-studies required as illustrative material. Understandably, most topics require examples from both the developed and the developing world in order to provide a sense of contrast. However, in several cases, the number of case-studies need not be multiplied. For example, in the syllabus, the study of "individual farms to nation states from a decision-making perspective" (Sub-topic 4(b) under Agricultural Geography) requires illustrative material amounting to "one developed and one developing country at each of the following levels: individual farm, regional and national". This can be simplified: understanding the decision-making process in agriculture does not require a study of two different countries at three different scales.

Reducing the number of advanced spatial models

(Proposed corresponding reduction in curriculum time: 10 per cent)

While an understanding of spatial models is essential to lay firm geographical foundations, some parts of the syllabus appear over-cluttered with too many models. For example, within the core syllabus, students are required to study a total of a dozen different spatial models under Urban Geography; under the sub-topic "the internal organization of cities and their functional zoning" (Sub-topic 2(c)) alone, five different models are listed, each to be illustrated using "case studies on a micro-scale". The proliferation of models is unnecessary, firstly because too many serves only to confuse students; and secondly because these models (which are of low real-world applicability) only distance students from an appreciation of the substantive issues at hand. It should also be noted that spatial modelling is only one of a number of ways to understand geographical phenomena, in vogue in the 1960s when Geography aspired to the claims of a spatial science, but much less so today with the ascendancy of other competing approaches to the subject. While it is unrealistic to ensure that a school syllabus keeps abreast of the various philosophical changes in the discipline, it is important that the subject is not locked in outdated approaches but remains flexible and dynamic.

Revamping optional topics

Optional topics are an essential part of a well-thought out syllabus as they provide the necessary breadth to the content and a degree of choice to students to pursue themes of interest to them. However, the purpose of including optional topics will be defeated if students do not have real choice in the matter (apparently, the choice of which "optional topic" to pick lies with the college which makes a collective decision usually based on the topic which is "easiest to score" in the examinations). It is therefore important to modify teaching/learning modes for optional topics in such a way as to allow some experimentation with self-directed learning. This will then allow students to choose their own topics and to pursue independent study in consultation with the teachers.

Since the basic knowledge foundation should already be catered for by the core syllabus, optional topics should not be seen as another avenue to increase the factual knowledge base. Instead, optional topics should be issue-based, strongly related to the real-world context, interesting and thought-provoking. Under "optional topics" in the current syllabus, "conservation and pollution of resources" (Topic 5) is a positive example of how optional topics may be developed as it raises many issues relating to people's use and abuse of the earth's resources. A topic such as "mining, fuel and power" (Topic 8) which requires knowledge of "physical and economic conditions affecting the exploitation of mineral resources" and "the location of processing and refining of mineral products", however, is too cumbersome and laden with facts to stimulate interest. Optional topics should be revamped to include topics of current interest such as regionalization, tourism, social geographies and cultural landscapes.

Adding a project-based/field-based component

(proposed addition in curriculum time: 30 per cent)

As a subject which is properly learnt "through the soles of one's feet", Geography presents many different opportunities for project and field work. Already, field-trips -- to local sites and further afield -- form an important part of the teaching of the subject in many colleges. Reducing and revamping the syllabus (see (1) to (4) above) would provide the space to introduce these modes of teaching/learning in a more systematic fashion. The hands-on experience students gain through mini-projects and field work will also be of value to students attempting questions in Section A of the examination papers (see earlier discussion under "Scheme of assessment")

6.3 'A' LEVEL SUBJECT (2): PHYSICS (9244)

Rationale behind syllabus

10.    The stated aims of Subject 9244, Physics (GCE Advanced Level), are:

     1. provide, through well-designed studies of experimental and practical science, a worthwhile education experience for all students, whether or not they go on to study science beyond this level and, in particular, to enable them to acquire sufficient understanding and knowledge to:

           1.1 become confident citizens in a technological world and able to take or develop an informed interest in matters of scientific import;

          1.2 recognize the usefulness, and limitations, of scientific method and to appreciate its applicability in other disciplines and in everyday life;

          1.3 be suitably prepared for studies beyond A level in Physics, in Engineering or in Physics-dependent vocational courses.

     2. develop abilities and skills that

         2.1 are relevant to the study and practice of science;

         2.2 are useful in everyday life;

         2.3 encourage efficient and safe practice;

         2.4 encourage effective communication.

    3. develop attitudes relevant to science such as:

         3.1 concern for accuracy and precision;

         3.2 objectivity;

         3.3 integrity;

         3.4 the skills of enquiry;

         3.5 initiative;

         3.6 inventiveness.

    4. stimulate interest in, and care for, the environment in relation to the environmental impact of physics and its applications.

    5. promote an awareness

          5.1 that the study and practice of Physics are co-operative and cumulative activities, and are subject to social, economic, technological, ethical and cultural influences and limitations;

         5.2 that the implications of Physics may be both beneficial and detrimental to the individual, the community and the environment;

         5.3 of the importance of the use of IT for communications, as an aid to experiments and as a tool for the interpretation of experimental and theoretical results.

     6. stimulate students and create a sustained interest in Physics so that the study of the subject is enjoyable and interesting.

11.    These stated objectives are generally appropriate.

Scheme of assessment
12.    Students enrolled in Physics 9244 are required to enter for the following:

	Paper 1 (Type: Multiple Choice; Duration: 1 h; Marks: 60)
	Paper 2 (Type: Structured Questions; Duration: 1 h 45 min; Marks: 90)
	Paper 3 (Type: Longer Structured Questions; Duration: 2 h 30 min; Marks: 110)
	Paper 5 (Type: Practical Examinations; Duration: 3 h; Marks: 50)

13.    Marks in the "Theory Papers" (Papers 1, 2 and 3; 260 marks in total) are allocated to assessment objectives as follows:

	knowledge with understanding - approximately 70 marks allocated to recall and 70 marks allocated to understanding.
	handling, applying and evaluating information - approximately 120 marks.

14.    The "Practical Examination" consists of two compulsory half-hour design exercises (16 marks) and two compulsory one-hour practical experiments (34 marks).

15.    The scheme of assessment is generally appropriate though it would be useful to note that for a subject such as Physics, self-directed project work is typically one of the better avenues to achieve an objective such as to "stimulate students and create a sustained interest in Physics so that the study of the subject is enjoyable and interesting" (see "Rationale behind syllabus").

Syllabus content

16.    Physics 9244 is actually a recently revised syllabus, with the revision completed in end 1995 and implemented in beginning 1996. In terms of the nature of topics in the Core and Option parts of the subject content, it is actually a generally up-to-date syllabus.

17.    The Subject Content of Physics 9244 has a "Core" part comprising 31 topics, 106 sub-topics, and 273 assessment objectives. In addition, it also has an "Options" part where students are expected to read 2 options (suggested) out of 7 listed options, where an option typically comprises 3 topics, approximately 8 sub-topics, and between 20 to 30 assessment objectives. Given the observed emphasis in schools on excellence in examination results and the consequent drilling by teachers to achieve this, the student classroom workload in Physics 9244 may possibly be quite heavy arising from this rather large number of topics and assessment objectives to be covered.

18.    In this sub-section, several starting points for possible review of the subject content to further reduce student classroom workload, and to introduce self-directed learning and project work, are suggested.

Trimming sub-topics not considered fundamental Physics concepts and principles  

(proposed corresponding reduction in curriculum time: 10-15 per cent)

One starting point for possible further content reduction is to consider the trimming of those sub-topics listing subject material which are not considered as key fundamental physical concepts and principles. Examples in the Physics 9244 syllabus include the sub-topics:

                7.3 Field of a point mass

                7.4 Field near to the surface of the earth

                7.5 Gravitational potential

                                and

                21.2 The transformer

                21.3 Transmission of electrical energy

                21.4 Rectification
       

If necessary, these topics can simply be listed as topics for advanced reading and/or discussion.

Removing advanced material while still meeting objectives

(proposed corresponding reduction in curriculum time: 10 per cent)

Various topics involving advanced material may be removed while still ensuring that the stated objectives of the subject are met. These topics are those which would be covered in an Engineering or a Physics course at the tertiary level anyway if the student moves on to enroll in such a course, and these are also the topics that are not absolutely essential for the education of a person to become a confident citizen in a technological world and able to take or develop an informed interest in matters of scientific import. Examples of these topics include:

                8. Motion in a Circle

                    8.1 Kinematics of uniform circular motion

                    8.2 Centripetal acceleration

                    8.3 Centripetal force

                                and

            20. Electromagnetic Induction

                20.1 Laws of electromagnetic induction

Re-thinking the manner in which options are offered and assessed

The available options in Physics 9244 provide selected topics where the student is expected to choose 2 from a list of 7 topics for further study. These are in the specialized areas of Astrophysics and Cosmology; the Physics of Materials; Electronics; the Physics of Fluids; Medical Physics; Environmental Physics; and Telecommunications.

While it may be noted that the availability of specialized options provides the scope for interested students to pursue the advanced topics of their choice and interest, and while this certainly has the potential of making the subject of Physics much more interesting, the reality, however, is that the options are not truly options available to students to pursue as they elect. Schools in practice offer only a limited number (typically three, possibly four), and only those topics which they (the schools) can confidently handle to ensure that students enrolled are assured of good grades.

Such a practice probably does not fully achieve the purpose of the Options Syllabus in attempting to provide a range of optional specialized topics for students to pursue in their own chosen areas of interest, and to reflect some of the modern-day career possibilities for the student of Engineering and Physics. It may thus be essential to re-think the manner in which the options are offered and assessed.

Clearly an ideal situation would be for every junior college offering Physics 9244 to offer the whole range of options (i.e. all seven specialized topics). If the resources are available and the management will exists to support this course of action, then the present assessment scheme for Physics 9244 is adequate.

However, if the ideal situation mentioned in the preceding paragraph is not feasible, then it may be more appropriate to adopt a teaching and learning strategy where the options are pursued by students as independent self-directed learning. Here, the students will be free to truly choose options of their choice and according to their interest. In this scenario, an assessment mode (for the Options Syllabus) different from the conventional end-of-the-year closed-book examination should be considered (e.g. independent essay or open-book examinations).

Incorporating project work

(Proposed addition in curriculum time: 20-25 per cent)

Based on the starting points suggested in Sub-Sections 6.3.1 and 6.3.2, expert curriculum developers can work towards achieving an effective overall content reduction of perhaps 25 per cent. With this reduction, it will become possible to incorporate project work with the time thus released. This project work could be carried out in the form of a mini-project within the Physics 9244 subject.

For Physics 9244, such project work should be of the type which would require the complete process of identifying a problem, surveying current known information, designing a possible experiment (an investigation or a proposed solution), implementing and testing the experiment, and making innovations (a necessary part of any experiment process) along the way to obtain meaningful conclusions. Such a process skill would certainly be useful in the 21st century scenario.

6.4 'O' LEVEL SUBJECT (1): BIOLOGY (5090)

Rationale behind syllabus

18.    The Biology (Subject 5090, GCE Ordinary Level) syllabus lists a total of seven objectives. These are to:

1. provide, through well designed studies and experimental and practical biological science, a worthwhile          educational experience for all students, whether or not they go on to study Biology beyond this level, and, in particular, to enable them to acquire sufficient understanding and knowledge to:

        1.1 become confident citizens in a technological world, able to take or develop an informed interest in matters of scientific import;

        1.2 recognize the usefulness, and limitations, of scientific method and to appreciate its applicability in other disciplines and in everyday life;

       1.3 be suitably prepared for studies beyond Ordinary level in pure sciences, in applied sciences or in science-dependent vocational courses.

2. stimulate students and create and sustain their interest in, and enjoyment of Biology.

3.  develop abilities and skills that

       3.1 are relevant to the study and practice of biological science;

       3.2 are useful in everyday life;

       3.3 encourage efficient and safe practice;

       3.4 encourage effective communication.
4. develop attitudes relevant to Biology such as

       4.1 concern for accuracy and precision;

       4.2 objectivity;

       4.3 integrity.

5. assist the development of

       5.1 the skills of enquiry;

       5.2 initiative;

       5.3 inventiveness.

6. stimulate interest in and care for the local and global environment.

7. promote an awareness that

       7.1 scientific theories and methods have developed, and continue to do so, as a result of co-operative activities of groups and individuals;

       7.2 the study and practice of biological science is subject to social, economic, technological, ethical and cultural influences and limitations;

       7.3 the applications of biological science may be both beneficial and detrimental to the individual, the community and the environment;

       7.4 biological science transcends national boundaries and that the language of science, correctly and rigorously applied, is universal.

Scheme of assessment
19.    The syllabus is examined by three papers, one of which is a practical paper. The first theory paper (50 min, 40 marks) consists of forty compulsory multiple-choice items which test students' knowledge and understanding of the subject as well as their ability to handle information and solve problems.

20.    The second theory paper (1h 45 min, 80 marks) has two sections:

Section A consists of a series of compulsory short answer questions which test students' ability to handle information and solve problems.

Section B consists of five structured free response questions of which students have to answer three. All the questions are designed to give the same weighting to assess students' knowledge and understanding of the subject.

21.    The practical paper which aims to test students experimental skills and investigations, consists of either two practical questions or a series of written questions designed to test past experience of practical work.

Syllabus content

General observations

22.    The current Biology 'O' level syllabus is heavy and depth centred. It appears to be concerned with "classical" biology, i.e. a detailed explication of biological systems, organisms and their environment. While this treatment of biology is useful as an introduction to the study of life, it does not offer a deep understanding of biological systems, and ignores many new developments that may be relevant to the general student.

23.    The aim of 'O' level biology is to provide students with a basic understanding of the study of life. For students who do not proceed to the 'A' or University level, it should be sufficient as a stand-alone subject. It is important that the curriculum enforces the importance of biological systems and mechanisms - it should help the student understand why biological systems work, how they are organized and why organisms inter-depend on each other, rather than a dry and straightforward explication of facts and figures.

24.    Biology has undergone several revolutions in the last century, beginning with Darwin's epochal Theory of Evolution, the discovery of genes, the neo-Darwinian synthesis, and the critical discovery of the structure of DNA and its implications for the molecular basis of life. In the 1960s and 1970s, there had been a steady convergence of research from different streams: molecular biology at the micro- and macro-level, the study of evolutionary systems, and further understanding of the importance of genes. In evolution, for instance, the last century has seen great developments in the understanding of human evolution with the discovery of human fossils. Molecular Biology in particular has been responsible for the growth and importance of biotechnology, which has seen applications in drugs, agriculture, understanding human disease and so on. There has also been great progress in the understanding of human physiology and pathology, especially in human diseases and their treatment.

25.    These new discoveries give some context and meaning to the study of biology - evolution explains why organisms came to be, and molecular biology explains how they work. It is inconceivable that a modern biology curriculum can ignore these developments, probably the most critical developments in biology in the last century. It is important to impress upon students a good grasp of the core theories of biology, for such understanding often persists, long after facts and figures have been forgotten.

Recommendations

26.    In the attempt to reduce the factual content of the 'O' level Biology curriculum, topics covered in the upper primary, lower secondary and 'A' level syllabi were taken into consideration. This is because, the 'O' level Biology syllabus is a continuation of the upper primary science curriculum and the "Life" section of the lower secondary curriculum. At the same time, some of the topics covered at 'O' level are dealt with in greater depth at the 'A' level.

27.    The Table below shows the topics recommended for removal from the 'O' level syllabus and the reasons for their removal. This constitutes approximately a 30 per cent reduction of content (measured in terms of curriculum time) in the Biology syllabus.

28.    Topics listed as more advanced can be listed for further reading or self-directed learning. Students can be encouraged to read up on these topics and time allocated for active classroom discussion. Students can also explore ideas from these topics to mount research projects of their choice and in accordance to their interests.

29.    The current syllabus should be revised to include topics that reflect current biological thinking such as the importance of evolution, the molecular biology revolution and the human body, its systems and functions. Adding these topics into the syllabus would involve an increase of about 15 per cent in curriculum time. Overall, the recommended syllabus would thus reflect a net reduction of 15 per cent of the current syllabus.

30.    The time released from the curriculum content cut would allow teachers to emphasize process skills, interactive learning, creative assignments and presentations and other activities that cater to students varying abilities, interests and learning styles.

31.    The suggested revised syllabus is listed below.

1. Specialized cells, tissues and organs
2. Diversity of organisms
3. Food chains, food webs and energy flow
4. Biochemistry, Proteins and Enzymes
5. Genetics, DNA, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
6. Variation
7. Chromosomes and genes
8. Monohybrid inheritance
9. Evolution and Biological Systems

            9.1 Human evolution

            9.2 Selection and Adaptation

            9.3 Homeostasis

            9.4 Co-ordination and response

            9.5 Ecosystems, rain forests and biodiversity

  10. Human Physiology (basics)

           10.1 Nutrition and nutrients

           10.2 Human alimentary canal (mechanical and physical digestion,

                  chemical digestion and absorption and assimilation)

           10.3 Transport in Man

           10.4 Respiration and gaseous exchange in man

           10.5 Excretion

           10.6 Reproduction

           10.7 Sexual reproduction (in plants and animals)

           10.8 Neurobiology

           10.9 Functions of brain and nerves

           10.10 Hormones

  11. Human Pathology

           11.1 The role of bacteria and viruses in disease

           11.2 Sexually transmitted diseases

           11.3 The immune response

32.    To familiarize teachers with the new syllabus, the Ministry of Education should enter into partnership with the universities to develop new material. Training courses focusing on the new topics should also be mounted to enhance teachers' skills.

6.5 'O' LEVEL SUBJECT (2): ENGLISH LITERATURE (2010)

Rationale behind syllabus

33.    The stated aims of Subject 2010, Literature in English GCE Ordinary Level, are set out below and describe the educational purposes of a course in Literature for the secondary level. The aims (not listed in order of priority) are to develop the ability of students to:

    1.   communicate accurately, appropriately and effectively in speech and writing;

    2.    understand and respond imaginatively to what they hear, read and experience;

    3.    enjoy the reading of literature and appreciate its contribution to aesthetic and imaginative worth;

    4.   explore areas of universal human concern, thus leading to a greater understanding of themselves and others.

Scheme of assessment

34.    Candidates should be able to:

1. demonstrate first-hand knowledge of the content of literary texts;
2. demonstrate an understanding of literary texts in ways which may range from a grasp of their surface meaning to a deeper awareness of their themes and attitudes;
3. recognize and appreciate ways in which writers use language;
4. recognize and appreciate other ways in which writers achieve their effects (e.g. structure, plot, characterization, dramatic tension, imagery, rhythm, setting and mood);
5. communicate a sensitive and informed personal response to what is read.

Note: These assessment objectives are inter-related and it will not normally be possible or desirable to test them in isolation.

35.    The examination comprises one paper (2010/1) of 2 h 40 min. Candidates are required to answer five questions as follows: one context question and one further question in Section A, either Shakespeare or another major English writer; and three questions in Section B on at least two other texts. The context questions may require candidates to explain words and phrases, to re-write passages in modern English, or to relate an extract to the work as a whole. There is one context, one text-based and one essay question on each of the texts set in Section A. There is one text-based and two essay questions on each of the texts set in Section B.

36.    The prescribed texts are:

Section A

Charles Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities

* Alan Paton: Cry, the Beloved Country

* Shakespeare: Macbeth

Section B

* The Calling of Kindred ed Barlow (CUP): Section B

* Joseph Conrad: Typhoon

* R.K. Narayan: Malgudi Days

* George Bernard Shaw: St Joan

R.C. Sherriff: Journey's End

* Ngugi wa Thiongo: The River Between

Anthony Trollope: The Warden

Into the Wind: Contemporary Stories in English ed. Wade

* Set also in 1998

Syllabus content

General observations

37.    The aims are not very different from the aims in English GCE 'A' level Subject 9002, although the assessment objectives are of a higher order in the 'A' level subject. There are three papers, each of three hours duration, in the 'A' level subject compared to the one paper at 'O' level.

38.    Most schools follow the safe path of choosing one text in Section A (usually the Shakespearean option) and two texts in Section B. This curriculum load is not considered heavy by both teachers and students, especially in some cases, where the Shakespearean text is taught at Secondary 3, and examined more deeply at Secondary Four. Independent and autonomous schools, compared to neighbourhood schools, sometimes teach four texts (one from Section A and three from Section B). The additional text may be too much for the underachievers in the good schools.

39.    However, for students who wish to go further in pursuit of their love of literature in English, the options are available for personal pleasure.

40.    The core texts provide sufficient grounding in the training of an aesthetic appreciation of the written word. However, to make the learning more enjoyable, meaningful, and sustainable in adult life, the subject could be approached in self-directed projects such as putting on a Shakespearean play, or in critical clinics where the practice of analyzing texts and contexts can be perfected. Self-directed learning and project work could instill a deep love of literature.

41.    The texts are truly "optional" in that teachers and principals can choose from the list offered.

42.    The syllabus provides scope for the interested student to pursue other texts of their choice and interest. This has the potential of making the subject much more interesting.

Recommendations

43.    It is advocated that the teaching methodology of literature rather than its syllabus be revamped. The teaching methodology should incorporate strategies that would include all the previously mentioned salient features of a "better" curriculum.

44.    There is no real need to reduce the syllabus at set out in the UCLES scheme. The only recommendation is that Singaporean literature texts in English should be included, where possible.

45.    However, there is a caveat. Students who do well at GCE (O) Literature in English may not perform as well when they make the quantum leap to GCE 'A' level where some eight texts might have to be read for the GCE 'A' English subject.

46.    The following are specific recommendations in two areas to improve the teaching of literature in English in Singapore schools: (a) Teacher training/re-training and (b) Student enjoyment and appreciation.

47.    Teacher training and retraining is suggested for two levels, one in providing teachers with knowledge about literature in English, with the aim of expanding their own love for literature, and the next, providing teachers with pedagogical knowledge in relation to teaching literature in English, thereby enhancing their teaching styles for literature. For the first, seminars and workshops could be conducted for teachers for the purpose of introducing parallel, complementary or supplementary texts. These could be organized by the Ministry of Education or the institutions of higher learning. For the second level, the purpose is to enliven the teaching styles of teachers of English in literature. It is necessary from them to have hands-on experience in producing materials for the teaching of literature, and to have the opportunity to travel to see movies, plays and performances of literary classics. Teachers should transfer what they learn, see and do, to the teaching situation for literature.

48.    Student enjoyment and appreciation of literary genres should be enhanced. For the genre of poetry, good oral renditions should be made or tape recordings of poems should be played, wherever possible, to carry the rhythm and movement of the poetic pieces, before students are asked to make observations on the way the poem was spoken/read, or any aspect of form and content. The aural introduction paves the way for oral and written responses.

49.    For the genre of drama, all students should be allowed to produce a play, or segments of it, for a public performance. The team work involved, the networking such a project necessitates, and the organizational skills learnt, will add to the students' fuller enjoyment of what would otherwise be mainly a pen-and-paper exercise. Students' appreciation of the text when the time comes for written analysis and comment would also be sharpened, since the delightfully hands-on approach and working with the text is introduced prior to their analyzing formal aspects of the dramatic texts.

50.    There are already several methods in practice with regard to the teaching of novels, some of which have proven well in obtaining good critical responses from students. The most basic method is to require that students read the whole novel in advance, or chapters of it, and then holding group or class discussions. This approach may benefit the better students. However, two further ones are recommended, not necessarily only for average students:

successive reading of chapters of the novel, guided by the teacher, and in sessions which inform students more about their own reading process, and make them understand it, for example, sifting through information for clues, learning about scenic presentation, understanding the use of chronology, finding out how characters are developed, etc. Chapter by chapter reading in class would also help teachers locate difficult passages where students may need immediate guidance;

creative writing should be fully employed to enliven the minds of students in obtaining "points of view" in literature. Many more students should be given creative writing experiences. For example, students could be encouraged to visualize themselves as being particular characters, and filling in certain "gaps" from those characters' points of view. In this way, students may begin to understand the inner workings of the mind, vis-à-vis real life situations, and begin to see the relevance of literature. Where creative writing is already being done, an extension of it should be made to cover other aspects of textual interpretations.

51.    The aim of literature teaching in schools should be to give students an immense satisfaction in being able to deal with "new" literature on their own. The aim should not be to coach students and to predict questions. Teachers should move towards stressing the reader's experience of a text, rather than concentrate on the structure or development of the text for the purposes of analysis only.

Chapter Seven

CONCLUDING REMARKS

6.1 FURTHER WORK

1.    This report sets out broad recommendations for policy changes to improve the education system at the three levels -- primary, secondary and junior college -- focusing principally on the architecture of the curriculum (as spelt out in Chapters 3, 4 and 5) followed by a more detailed study of the syllabuses of four selected 'O' and 'A' level subjects (Chapter 6). Bearing in mind the challenges of the 21^st century, the aim is to suggest measures which will best prepare our students to become socially responsible citizens who are LEARNERS, CREATORS and COMMUNICATORS. The quality of lifelong learning based on a strong foundation of knowledge and process skills and an inquiring yet disciplined spirit, the aptitude for critical and creative thinking and confidence in problem-solving in a rapidly changing environment, and the ability to communicate well and build teamworking and networking skills will stand Singapore in good stead to forge ahead as a leading nation in the 21^st century. The Review Team is confident that the changes recommended here if well implemented will go a considerable way towards "Thinking Schools, Learning Nation".

2.    Broad directions for the future have been identified which require more attention at the level of specific details. It is vital for the Ministry of Education to set up committees to work out detailed plans in syllabus review, teacher training and physical infrastructure. The Review Team also wishes to urge the Ministry to pay special attention to pre-primary education which is not within the scope of this study.

Syllabus review
3.    The relative emphasis on content and process skills for each subject syllabus should be thoroughly reviewed by curriculum and subject specialists. While each subject should serve to equip students with the necessary knowledge base, the focus should be on cultivating students' ability to think critically, creatively and broadly; to seek, handle and process information; to develop independence and innovation in their learning strategies; to be able to communicate ideas well; and to work collaboratively with others.

Teacher training

4.    For the recommended changes in this report to be successfully implemented, it is imperative that teachers are given the appropriate training and re-orientation to equip them with the necessary mindsets and skills to put in place new teaching and assessment methodologies which will help nurture among our students the qualities of enthusiastic, lifelong learning; creativity and innovation; and effective communication. In particular, given the recommended shift to reach beyond imparting content to developing process skills, teachers need to be equipped with appropriate teaching strategies and assessment methods to handle project work and other creative forms of learning. Teacher training is a key feature on which the success of any policy change in education depends.

Physical infrastructure

5.    To provide a conducive environment for developing a positive learning culture in our schools, the necessary physical infrastructure must be available. In this light, the Ministry should explore the possibilities of initiating or accelerating plans to convert all schools, both primary and secondary, to single session schools.

Pre-primary education
6.    The early years are of crucial significance in laying the right foundations, particularly in the areas of cultivating creative and inquiring mindsets and where language skills are concerned. Given its importance, pre-primary education must not be left to the vagaries of market forces; instead, pre-primary programmes should be carefully planned for and implemented by trained professionals so as to ensure that children at the start of their educational journeys are equipped with positive attitudes towards a life of learning.

6.2 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

Several observations must be made before concluding this report.

7.    First, as a means to monitor the implementation of change, quality control measures play an important role. Where existing measures (e.g. school ranking; school appraisal; teacher appraisal) are concerned, the perception on the ground appears to be that these measures focus unduly on quantifiable indicators such as examination results without similar attention to less easily quantifiable (but equally important) indicators such as the development of a positive learning culture. Schools and junior colleges of the 21^st century will require well-designed quality assurance measures which do not concentrate too narrowly on the imperatives of assessment but take into consideration the broader aims of education such as the development of a school ethos which places emphasis on nurturing learners, creators and communicators.

8.    Second, to meet the challenges of the 21^st century, schools and junior colleges need to have greater room for differentiation and autonomy to cater to different needs and nurture diverse talents. Schools should not be distinguishable only on the basis of academic standing (as currently captured by school ranking exercises) but in terms of the entire school ethos. Each school must consciously build on its tradition and uphold its mission, instilling in all who pass through its gates a sense of the school spirit and identity, and the values it represents.

9.    Third, it is also important to bear in mind the fact that the success of our education system depends not only on the schools but also the support given and roles played by other stakeholders especially employers and parents. In this light, the Ministry of Education must go beyond keeping close touch with employers' feedback on the evolving demands of the workplace. Employers should be encouraged to play appropriate roles such as having regular dialogues with teachers, making proposals of interesting student projects, providing opportunities for teacher attachments during vacation, and training of career counsellors. The Ministry should also ensure that the rationale behind changes in the education system is clearly communicated to parents so as to elicit their support and co-operation in fulfilling the aims of education. Keeping parents well-informed of the realities and demands of the workplace and making it clear how schools and junior colleges are rising to the challenge will help draw parents into the broad vision for the future and influence parental attitudes as to what constitutes the desired educational goals for their children.

10.    Finally, the Review Team observes that in spirit, the recommendations outlined in this report dovetail with the Ministry of Education's current emphasis on creative and critical thinking becoming an essential part of the school experience. Through the Team's interactions with teachers and principals, key personnel in translating the vision encapsulated in this report into reality, it is clear that there is already significant groundswell of enthusiasm for new directions which will further challenge the young people of Singapore to become outstanding learners, creators, and communicators, in the 21^st century. This bodes well for the education system of the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Review Team would like to thank Resource Persons from the following institutions for their invaluable inputs and assistance:

	Ministry of Education
	International Baccalaureate (Asia-Pacific) Organisation
	Ai Tong Primary School
	Covent of the Holy Infant Jesus (Kellock)
	Fengshan Primary School
	Haig Boys' School
	Radin Mas Primary School
	Raffles Girls' Primary School
	Ang Mo Kio Secondary School
	Gan Eng Seng School
	Outram Secondary School
	Raffles Institution
	River Valley High School
	Yio Chu Kang Secondary School
	Raffles Junior College
	Seletar Institute
	St Andrew's Junior College
	Tampines Junior College
	Victoria Junior College
	Yishun Junior College